Category: Surgical Anatomy

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Imaging-based surgical stratification of parasagittal meningiomas involving the superior sagittal sinus: a case analysis of 62 patients

Neurosurg Focus 61(3):E7, 2026

The surgical challenge of a parasagittal meningioma extends beyond determining whether the superior sagittal sinus is invaded. Safe exposure and resection also depend on residual venous flow, collateral drainage, bridging-vein anatomy and extension across the falx or adjacent convexity dura. Li and colleagues propose an imaging-based framework that brings these relationships into preoperative planning. Their study is most useful as an anatomical guide to the operative strategy, rather than as evidence that a particular sinus-directed maneuver improves outcomes.

Objective

To evaluate the Superior Sagittal Sinus Involvement Grading system (SSIG) in relation to established invasion grading, operative complexity and resection strategy.

Methods

This retrospective, single-center series included 62 consecutive resections performed by one surgeon. Fifty-five tumors were primary and seven recurrent. SSIG was assigned by consensus among three senior neurosurgeons using contrast-enhanced coronal MRI. CT or MR venography was available in 49 patients to assess sinus patency and collateral drainage.

The framework distinguishes convexity-adjacent disease with an intact sinus wall (grade 1), falcine involvement with deeper wall invasion (grade 2), predominantly intraluminal tumor (grade 3), continuous convexity-sinus-falx involvement with residual flow (grade 4a), more extensive invasion with severe stenosis or functional near occlusion (grade 4b), and complete sinus occlusion (grade 5).

For comparisons, grades 1, 2 and 4a formed a low-involvement group of 44 patients; grades 3, 4b and 5 formed a high-involvement group of 18. This grouping reflects anticipated sinus management rather than a simple numerical progression.

Main results

SSIG correlated with Sindou grade (Spearman r = 0.790) and venography-based involvement in the 49 evaluable patients (r = 0.742). Operative time and blood loss differed across the six SSIG categories. However, in the binary low-versus-high comparison, blood loss remained significantly different whereas operative time did not.

Simpson grade I resection was recorded in 38 of 44 low-involvement cases and six of 18 high-involvement cases. Simpson grades II-III were correspondingly more frequent with high involvement: 66.7% versus 13.6%. In this study, that category represented gross tumor removal with preservation of the invaded sinus wall or segment, rather than necessarily indicating a visible residual mass.

Neurological adverse events occurred in 10 patients (16.1%), including seven with new or worsened limb numbness or weakness. The authors also reported systemic morbidity, including lower-extremity venous thrombosis in 22 patients and one pulmonary embolism. Surgery-related complication rates did not differ significantly between the two involvement groups, but the small sample does not establish equivalent safety. No radiographic recurrence or progression was observed during a mean follow-up of 13.3 months.

Interpretation – operative relevance

The first practical contribution concerns exposure. In the authors’ practice, grade 1-2 lesions generally required an ipsilateral parasagittal craniotomy reaching the midline. When intraluminal work or contralateral exposure was anticipated, the bone flap crossed the midline to permit visualization and control of the relevant sinus segment. Thus, falcine and convexity extension help determine the operative corridor in addition to the depth of sinus invasion.

The second concerns venous dissection. The described principles include internal tumor decompression, dissection along the arachnoid interface, sharp separation of adherent veins and particular protection of bridging-vein entry zones. Early treatment of the dural or falcine attachment is integrated with preservation of the functioning venous pathways.

The distinction between grades 4a and 4b is especially useful. Both may involve the convexity, sinus and falx, but residual effective flow favors conservative handling of the sinus wall. Severe narrowing or near occlusion requires a more detailed assessment of compensatory drainage before contemplating sinus-directed resection. An imaging label alone cannot demonstrate that a venous segment is expendable.

For completely occluded grade 5 lesions, the authors describe selected resections without sinus reconstruction after assessment of collateral compensation and protection of the venous drainage at the segment boundaries. This is their reported strategy, not a general recommendation to sacrifice an occluded sinus. The series does not compare reconstruction with nonreconstruction or validate a universal threshold for safe ligation.

Limitations

The study is retrospective and restricted to one surgeon. Subgroups were uneven, with only one grade 3 lesion, and venography was unavailable in 13 patients. Although grading was assigned by consensus, interobserver reproducibility was not formally established. Exploratory comparisons were not adjusted for multiple testing, and the small number of events limits complication analysis. Short follow-up without progression cannot establish long-term tumor control or the superiority of a resection strategy.

Clinical takeaway

Plan the exposure and resection boundary around functional venous anatomy, not sinus invasion alone. SSIG offers a useful structure for reviewing convexity and falcine extension, residual flow and collateral pathways; its principal value is to organize surgical judgment while keeping preservation of effective venous drainage central to the operation.

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Maximum safe resection of insular gliomas: update on surgical outcomes from 500 cases

J Neurosurg 145:347–363, 2026

Insular gliomas remain among the most demanding intrinsic brain tumors because eloquent cortical and subcortical networks coexist with critical middle cerebral and lenticulostriate vessels. This large single-center experience evaluates whether a transcortical, mapping-guided strategy can achieve meaningful cytoreduction without unacceptable neurological morbidity. The series comprises 502 operations in 394 patients with newly diagnosed or recurrent low- and high-grade tumors. Greater extent of resection and smaller residual volumes were associated with longer survival, while persistent deficits were uncommon. The results support maximum safe resection, but also underline that oncological benefit depends on preserving neurological function.

Objective

To determine whether transcortical resection supported by cortical and subcortical mapping remains a safe and effective strategy for newly diagnosed and recurrent insular gliomas, and to examine the relationships among tumor characteristics, extent of resection, postoperative morbidity, progression-free survival and overall survival.

Methods

This retrospective single-center study analyzed 502 resections performed in 394 patients between September 1997 and December 2022. The cohort included 316 newly diagnosed tumors—165 low-grade and 151 high-grade—and 186 recurrent tumors—69 low-grade and 117 high-grade.

Tumors were classified according to the Berger-Sanai zones. Preoperative and postoperative contrast-enhancing and non–contrast-enhancing volumes were manually segmented on MRI to calculate extent of resection and residual volume. Neurological status was assessed preoperatively, immediately after surgery, at discharge, at 3 months and at least 6 months postoperatively.

The transcortical approach was adapted to hemispheric dominance and tumor anatomy. Dominant-hemisphere lesions underwent awake language and motor mapping; nondominant lesions were generally treated asleep with triple-modality motor mapping. Subcortical stimulation defined functional white-matter boundaries, while the lenticulostriate arteries marked the medial resection limit.

Progression-free and overall survival were studied using Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analyses. Propensity-score weighting adjusted survival comparisons for factors including age, preoperative Karnofsky Performance Status and adjuvant temozolomide or radiotherapy.

Main results

Median extent of resection exceeded 80% across the analyzed molecular subtypes in both newly diagnosed and recurrent tumors. Grade 2 tumors were larger than grade 4 IDH-wildtype glioblastomas at presentation (43 versus 17.5 cm³; p<0.001), while their median residual volume was also greater (6.8 versus 0.5 cm³; p<0.001).

Among newly diagnosed grade 2 tumors, transient motor and language deficits occurred in 9.5% and 20% of cases, respectively. Persistent deficits were substantially less frequent: 0.6% for motor function and 3.3% for language. Across all 502 operations, only 3 patients (0.59%) had permanent hemiparesis below antigravity strength. Surgical and medical complications each occurred in fewer than 3% of cases, and more than 94% of patients were discharged home.

For newly diagnosed IDH-mutant grade 2 tumors, residual non–contrast-enhancing volume below 2.7 cm³ was associated with longer overall survival, while a residual volume below 4.3 cm³ was associated with longer progression-free survival. In recurrent grade 2 tumors, residual volumes below 0.8 cm³ and 1.8 cm³ were associated with improved overall and progression-free survival, respectively.

For newly diagnosed IDH-wildtype glioblastoma, resection of more than 88.6% of the contrast-enhancing component was associated with longer overall survival, and resection above 87.08% with longer progression-free survival. Median overall survival was 18.5 months when contrast-enhancing extent of resection exceeded 88.6%.

A new permanent arm or leg deficit was independently associated with worse overall survival (HR 2.06; 95% CI 1.14–3.74; p=0.017).

Interpretation

The study provides strong observational support for a transcortical, mapping-guided approach to insular glioma surgery. Meaningful cytoreduction was achievable across all Berger-Sanai zones and in both initial and repeat operations, with a low frequency of permanent neurological morbidity.

The survival analyses also refine the concept of “maximum safe resection.” Benefit was associated not only with percentage resection but with the absolute residual volume, particularly in IDH-mutant grade 2 glioma. Nevertheless, these thresholds should be interpreted as cohort-derived prognostic markers rather than mandatory surgical targets.

The association between permanent weakness and poorer survival is clinically crucial. It indicates that aggressive cytoreduction loses part of its oncological value when it produces lasting neurological injury. Functional preservation is therefore an integral component of oncological efficacy, not merely a secondary safety endpoint.

Limitations

This was a retrospective experience from a single, highly specialized center, which limits generalizability to teams with different mapping expertise or operative volumes. The 25-year inclusion period encompassed major changes in imaging, mapping, neuropathological classification and adjuvant treatment.

Molecular information was incomplete in earlier cases; survival analyses were consequently restricted to tumors that could be classified according to the 2021 WHO framework. Treatment selection was not randomized, and residual confounding remains despite propensity-score adjustment. The study does not directly compare transcortical surgery with transsylvian resection, biopsy, laser interstitial thermal therapy or IDH-inhibitor-based strategies.

The reported residual-volume and extent-of-resection cutoffs were derived retrospectively from this cohort and require external validation. Detailed neurocognitive and quality-of-life outcomes were also less comprehensive than the motor and language assessments.

Clinical takeaway

Maximum safe resection should remain the operative goal for appropriately selected adult patients with insular glioma, including selected recurrent tumors. A transcortical approach supported by individualized cortical and subcortical mapping can produce substantial cytoreduction with low permanent morbidity in experienced hands.

The surgeon should prioritize the smallest safely achievable residual volume rather than pursue a percentage target at the expense of functional pathways or lenticulostriate vessels. In practical terms, the oncological objective and the functional boundary are inseparable: avoid a permanent deficit, because neurological injury is itself associated with poorer survival.

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Perimesencephalic hemorrhage: a proposed explanation of its cause and clinical manifestations

J Neurosurg 144:740–746, 2026

This neurosurgical forum article analyzes perimesencephalic hemorrhage (PMH), proposing that small dural arterial variants—particularly the artery of Wollschlaeger and Wollschlaeger (AWW) arising from the superior cerebellar artery—can undergo distraction-avulsion and explain PMH’s characteristic cisternal distribution and benign clinical course. The authors present a surgical case with intraoperative identification of an SCA-derived dural branch and perform detailed anatomical correlation.

The paper contrasts venous and arterial hypotheses, reviews perimesencephalic cisternal anatomy and tentorial blood supply, and argues that spontaneous tearing of a tethered intradural dural branch best accounts for imaging, pathophysiology, and low recurrence of PMH, while acknowledging limits of confirmatory testing.

PMH profile Nonaneurysmal perimesencephalic hemorrhage (PMH) is ~10%–15% of spontaneous cisternal SAH, with CT blood confined around the midbrain and typically a benign course with complete recovery and rare recurrence.

Unknown etiology Despite decades of imaging/anatomical work, the cause often remains unidentified on initial and follow-up angiography, leading to the concept of “SAH of unknown cause,” especially when bleeding is perimesencephalic-only.

Index case A 54-year-old woman with SAH had angiography showing a dural arteriovenous fistula (DAVF) fed by the meningohypophyseal trunk and draining via the superior petrosal vein; surgery disconnected the fistula with good outcome.

Unexpected anatomy Intraoperatively, a dural branch from the superior cerebellar artery (SCA) was found bridging the ambient cistern to the undersurface of the tentorium (the artery of Wollschlaeger and Wollschlaeger, AWW) and was sacrificed; it had not been seen on preop angiography and was not the hemorrhage source in that case.

Key anatomical concept The perimesencephalic cistern system (interpeduncular, ambient, quadrigeminal) surrounds the midbrain at the tentorial incisura; vessels can traverse cisternal spaces and arachnoid septations, influencing where blood can collect.

Tentorial dural supply variants The medial tentorium can be supplied by the marginal tentorial artery from the meningohypophyseal trunk, plus intradural-origin dural branches from the PCA (artery of Davidoff and Schechter, ADS) and from the SCA (AWW) that course within the ambient cistern before entering tentorium.

Competing sources considered Two structures fit many PMH constraints: the basal vein of Rosenthal (BVR) (venous, tethered to vein of Galen) and the ADS/AWW (arterial dural branches tethered to the medial tentorial edge).

Proposed mechanism for PMH Spontaneous distraction-avulsion of the AWW from its fragile tentorial attachment during everyday Valsalva/exertion could cause focal cisternal bleeding that self-limits as pressure equalizes in the confined cistern; this is proposed to explain PMH distribution, negative angiography, generally mild course, low hydrocephalus/vasospasm, and rare rebleed.

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Three-dimensional microsurgical anatomy of the basal aspect of the cerebrum: a fiber dissection study

J Neurosurg 144:690–702, 2026

This study presents a three-dimensional microsurgical fiber-dissection analysis of the basal aspect of the human cerebrum, detailing the spatial organization of commissural, projection, and association fibers and their relationships with subcortical nuclei, ventricles, and cortical landmarks. Using 10 formalin-fixed brains with layer-by-layer dissection and stereoscopic photography, the authors map tracts such as the ILF, UF, SS, cingulum, fornix, and connections around the amygdala and nucleus accumbens.

The findings emphasize surgical implications by clarifying trajectories and landmarks relevant to approaches like STIO and SCTT, illustrating a clinical case of hippocampal glioma resection with optic-radiation preservation, and proposing that 3D anatomical insight enhances safe, precise planning for medial temporal and basal lesions.

Objective Limited surgical exposure of the cerebral base makes basal fiber-tract injury a key risk; detailed 3D tract anatomy is needed to plan safer resections and support brain-function research.

Aim Mapped the topography of basal white-matter tracts and subcortical gray matter (including hippocampus, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens) and their relationships to cortex, ventricles, and nuclei.

Methods Performed Klingler-style layer-by-layer fiber dissection on 10 formalin-fixed human brains under ×6–×40 magnification, documenting each stage with stereoscopic 3D photography.

Key anatomy (basal tracts) Sequential basal dissection exposed U fibers, inferior cingulum (lower part), Li-Am fasciculus, SRF, and ILF; removing Li-Am/ILF revealed the temporal horn with the hippocampus medially.

Sagittal stratum layering The lateral wall of the atrium is layered (medial→lateral): ependyma, tapetum, IC-SL, optic radiations, posterior AC extension, IFOF, MdLF, posterior SLF/AF, U fibers, cortex—together forming the sagittal stratum.

ILF clarification The ILF was identified as a long association tract connecting the base of the temporal pole to the occipital base, located above the fusiform gyrus and beneath the sagittal stratum; “merging fibers” in lateral occipital base were distinguished from the temporal portion of the AF.

Amygdala connectivity The amygdala links to septal nuclei/hypothalamus/thalamus via the stria terminalis, projects to cortical regions via the uncinate fasciculus, and connects via additional pathways including amygdalofugal routes and the anterior commissure.

Surgical application (STIO case) A right hippocampal WHO grade 2 glioma was resected via a supratentorial-infraoccipital (STIO) approach; the fusiform gyrus was incised anterior to the basal turning point of the optic radiation to reach the lateral ventricle, and postoperative DTI confirmed optic-radiation preservation.

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Surgery of peritorcular meningiomas: the structural basis for preservation of torcular venous flow

J Neurosurg 143:1449–1457, 2025

This clinical and anatomical study defines the structural composition of the torcular Herophili and its implications for resection of peritorcular meningiomas, presenting histological evidence of a delaminable collagenous plane between venous endothelium and dural fibrous layers. The authors propose a four-type classification of tumor invasion based on endothelial integrity to guide operative strategy and preserve venous flow.

Clinical outcomes from 14 patients treated between 1997 and 2018 are reported, demonstrating feasibility of gross-total resection for type I–II tumors via layer-by-layer dissection with venous wall reinforcement, while types III–IV require preservation of collateral drainage and tailored reconstructive or adjunctive approaches.

• Torcular Anatomy: The torcular wall consists of two main compartments—an inner venous structure lined by endothelium and supported by elastic and smooth muscle fibers, and an outer fibrous dural layer, separated by a collagenous cleavage plane that enables surgical delamination.

• Meningioma Classification: Peritorcular meningiomas are classified into four types based on anatomical invasion: Type I (dural involvement only), Type II (dural involvement with sinus compression/displacement), Type III (endothelial layer disrupted, tumor penetrates lumen), and Type IV (complete sinus occlusion).

• Surgical Technique: For Type I and II tumors, gross-total resection is feasible by dissecting the tumor away from the inner venous wall at the cleavage plane, preserving venous integrity and flow; in Types III and IV, focus shifts to preserving venous collaterals due to disrupted or occluded flow.

• Preoperative Planning: Detailed imaging and identification of venous collaterals are critical for operative planning, especially when sinus flow is compromised or occluded.

• Outcomes: Gross-total resection was achieved in all patients with Type I and II tumors, with lower recurrence rates; subtotal resection and higher recurrence were associated with Types III and IV and higher-grade meningiomas.

• Complications and Mortality: No surgical mortality was reported; complications included wound infections and, rarely, recurrence or death related to aggressive tumor biology rather than surgery itself.

• Role of Radiotherapy: Radiation therapy was reserved for high-grade, residual, or recurrent tumors, particularly when total resection was not possible or in cases of sinus wall involvement.

• Clinical Significance: Preservation of the torcular venous wall and flow is paramount for favorable outcomes; anatomical understanding of the torcula enables safer, more effective resections and reduces recurrence in benign cases.

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The Far-Lateral Approach and Its Variants

Operative Neurosurgery 29:740–745, 2025

This technical report details the far‑lateral craniotomy and its variants for accessing ventral and ventrolateral craniovertebral pathologies, emphasizing indications, anatomical considerations, and operative steps. It outlines positioning, incision choices, bone work including condylar modifications, dural handling, and strategies to protect the vertebral artery and lower cranial nerves.

The article highlights advantages, limitations, and common pitfalls—such as occipitocervical instability with extensive condylectomy, hypoglossal canal risk, and CSF leak prevention—and supplements the text with high‑quality dissections and a 4K instructional video aimed at trainees and early‑career neurosurgeons.

 

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Presentation, surgical outcome, and supplementary motor area syndrome risk of posterior superior frontal gyrus tumors

J Neurosurg 142:162–173, 2025

Following resection of posterior superior frontal gyrus (PSFG) tumors, patients can experience supplementary motor area (SMA) syndrome consisting of contralateral hemiapraxia and/or speech apraxia. Given the heterogeneity of PSFG tumors, the authors sought to determine the risk of postoperative deficits and assess predictors of outcomes for all intraparenchymal PSFG tumors undergoing surgery (biopsy or resection), regardless of histology.

METHODS This was a retrospective single-center cohort study of adult PSFG-region tumors undergoing biopsy or resection by a single surgeon.

RESULTS A total of 106 consecutive patients undergoing 123 procedures (21 biopsies, 102 resections) fulfilled inclusion and exclusion criteria. Anaplastic astrocytomas were the most frequent among resected tumors (39% vs 29%), while glioblastomas were most common among biopsies (38% vs 27%) (p < 0.0001). The biopsy cohort was more likely to have tumor involvement outside the PSFG (90% vs 62%) (p = 0.011), most commonly in the motor cortex (67% vs 31%) (p = 0.005). Seizures were the most common presenting symptom in the resection cohort (p = 0.017), while motor deficits were more common in the biopsy cohort (58% vs 29%) (p < 0.001). Immediate postoperative neurological deficits occurred in 71 cases (58%), but only 3 of the deficits were permanent at 6 months of follow-up (2%). Postoperative SMA syndrome occurred in 48 cases (47%) and was significantly associated with involvement of the motor cortex (p = 0.018) or cingulate gyrus (p = 0.023), which were also significant in multivariate analysis as risk factors for SMA syndrome. However, postoperative SMA syndrome was not significantly associated with overall survival (p = 0.51). There were no perioperative deaths, but corpus callosum involvement (p < 0.001), contrast enhancement (p = 0.003), and glioblastoma pathology (p = 0.038) predicted worse overall survival in patients undergoing resection.

CONCLUSIONS Nearly half of all patients undergoing resection of PSFG-region tumors experience a postoperative SMA syndrome. Individuals with corpus callosum and/or motor cortex involvement may be at an increased risk of experiencing SMA syndrome. However, these deficits are usually transient, and the risk of permanent new deficits is very low (3%). Preoperative characteristics including corpus callosum involvement and tumor enhancement—in addition to pathology—might serve as predictors of overall survival within this patient population.

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Microsurgical anatomy and approaches to thalamic gliomas. Part 1

J Neurosurg 141:1457–1471, 2024

The selection of appropriate microsurgical approaches to treat thalamic pathologies is currently largely subjective. The objective of this study was to provide a structured cartography map for surgical navigation to treat gliomas involving different surfaces of the thalamus.

METHODS Fifteen formalin-fixed, silicone-injected cadavers (30 sides) were dissected, and 10 adult brain specimens (20 sides) were used to illustrate thalamic microsurgical anatomy using the Klingler fiber dissection technique. Exposures and trajectories for the six most common microsurgical approaches were depicted using MR data from healthy subjects converted into surface-rendered 3D virtual brain models. Additionally, thalamic surfaces exposed with all six approaches were color mapped on the virtual 3D model and compared side-by-side in 360° views with previously reported microsurgical approaches. These 3D models were then used in conjunction with topographic data to guide cadaveric dissection steps.

RESULTS There are two general surgical routes to thalamic lesions: the subarachnoid transcisternal and transcortical routes. The transcisternal route consists of the following three approaches: 1) anterior interhemispheric transcallosal approach, which exposes the anterior and superior thalamus; 2) posterior interhemispheric transcallosal approach, which exposes the posterosuperior thalamus; and 3) supracerebellar infratentorial approach, which exposes the posteromedial cisternal thalamus and can be extended laterally to approach the posterolateral thalamus by cutting the tentorium. The three transcortical approaches are the 1) superior parietal lobule approach, which exposes the posterosuperior thalamus and is particularly advantageous in the setting of hydrocephalus; 2) transtemporal gyrus approach, which exposes the inferolateral thalamus; and 3) transsylvian transinsular approach, which exposes the lateral thalamus (slightly more superiorly and posteriorly) and is advantageous for pathologies extending laterally into the peduncle, lenticular nucleus, or insula.

CONCLUSIONS Microsurgical approaches to thalamic gliomas continue to be challenging. Nonetheless, safe and effective cisternal, ventricular, and cortical corridors can be developed with thoughtful planning, anatomical understanding, and knowledge of the advantages, risks, and limitations of each approach. In some cases, it is wise to combine these approaches with staged procedures, as the authors demonstrate in Part 2. In Part 1 of this two-part series, they discuss thalamic microsurgical anatomy and illustrate the trajectory and exposures of all six approaches to guide decision-making. Part 2 discusses their thalamic glioma microsurgical case series, which utilizes these microsurgical approaches.

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Microsurgical Resection of Brainstem Cavernous Malformations in Older Adults: A Multicenter, 30-Year Experience

Neurosurgery 95:669–675, 2024

Microsurgical resection is the only curative intervention for symptomatic brainstem cavernous malformations (BSCMs), but the management of these lesions in older adults (≥65 years) is not well described. This study sought to address this gap by examining the safety and efficacy of BSCM resection in a cohort of older adults.

METHODS: Records of patients who underwent BSCM resection over a 30-year period were reviewed retrospectively. Baseline characteristics and outcomes were compared between older (≥65 years) and younger (<65 years) patients.

RESULTS: Of 550 patients with BSCM who met inclusion criteria, 41 (7.5%) were older than 65 years. Midbrain (43.9% vs 26.1%) and medullary lesions (19.5% vs 13.6%) were more common in the older cohort than in the younger cohort (P = .01). Components of the Lawton BSCM grading system (ie, lesion size, crossing axial midpoint, developmental venous anomaly, and timing of hemorrhage) were not significantly different between cohorts (P ≥ .11). Mean (SD) Elixhauser comorbidity score was significantly higher in older patients (1.86 [1.06]) than in younger patients (0.66 [0.95]; P < .001). Older patients were significantly more likely than younger patients to have poor outcomes at final follow-up (28.9% vs 13.8%, P = .01; mean follow-up duration, 28.7 [39.1] months). However, regarding relative neurological outcome (preoperative modified Rankin Scale to final modified Rankin Scale), rate of worsening was not significantly different between older and younger patients (23.7% vs 14.9%, P = .15).

CONCLUSION: BSCMs can be safely resected in older patients, and when each patient’s unique health status and life expectancy are taken into account, these patients can have outcomes similar to younger patients.

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Novel classification of foramen magnum meningiomas predicted by topographic position relative to neurovascular bundle

Acta Neurochirurgica (2024) 166:199

Proximity to critical neurovascular structures can create significant obstacles during surgical resection of foramen magnum meningiomas (FMMs) to the detriment of treatment outcomes. We propose a new classification that defines the tumor’s relationship to neurovascular structures and assess correlation with postoperative outcomes.

Methods In this retrospective review, 41 consecutive patients underwent primary resection of FMMs through a far lateral approach. Groups defined based on tumor-neurovascular bundle configuration included Type 1, bundle ventral to tumor; Type 2a-c, bundle superior, inferior, or splayed, respectively; Type 3, bundle dorsal; and Type 4, nerves and/or vertebral artery encased by tumor.

Results The 41 patients (range 29–81 years old) had maximal tumor diameter averaging 30.1 mm (range 12.7–56 mm). Preoperatively, 17 (41%) patients had cranial nerve (CN) dysfunction, 12 (29%) had motor weakness and/or myelopathy, and 9 (22%) had sensory deficits. Tumor type was relevant to surgical outcomes: specifically, Type 4 demonstrated lower rates of gross total resection (65%) and worse immediate postoperative CN outcomes. Long-term findings showed Types 2, 3, and 4 demonstrated higher rates of permanent cranial neuropathy. Although patients with Type 4 tumors had overall higher ICU and hospital length of stay, there was no difference in tumor configuration and rates of postoperative complications or 30-day readmission.

Conclusion The four main types of FMMs in this proposed classification reflected a gradual increase in surgical difficulty and worse outcomes. Further studies are warranted in larger cohorts to confirm its reliability in predicting postoperative outcomes and possibly directing management decisions.

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Intraventricular meningioma resection and visual outcomes

J Neurosurg 140:1001–1007, 2024

Intraventricular meningiomas (IVMs) of the lateral ventricle are rare tumors that present surgical challenges because of their deep location. Visual field deficits (VFDs) are one risk associated with these tumors and their treatment. VFDs may be present preoperatively due to the tumor and mass effect (tumor VFDs) or may develop postoperatively due to the surgical approach (surgical VFDs). This institutional series aimed to review surgical outcomes following resection of IVMs, with a focus on VFDs.

METHODS Patients who received IVM resection at one academic institution between the years 1996 and 2021 were retrospectively reviewed. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) reconstructions of the optic radiations around the tumor were performed from preoperative IVM imaging. The VFD course and resolution were documented.

RESULTS Thirty-two adult patients underwent IVM resection, with gross-total resection in 30 patients (93.8%). Preoperatively, tumor VFDs were present in 6 patients, resolving after surgery in 5 patients. Five other patients (without preoperative VFD) had new persistent surgical VFDs postoperatively (5/32, 15.6%) that persisted to the most recent follow-up. Of the 5 patients with persistent surgical VFDs, 4 received a transtemporal approach and 1 received a transparietal approach, and all these deficits occurred prior to regular use of DTI in preoperative imaging.

CONCLUSIONS New surgical VFDs are a common neurological deficit after IVM resection. Preoperative DTI may demonstrate distortion of the optic radiations around the tumor, thus revealing safe operative corridors to prevent surgical VFDs.

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The learning curve for cavernous sinus surgery illustrated by symptomatic intracavernous aneurysm clipping through a pretemporal transcavernous approach

J Neurosurg 140:183–193, 2024

OBJECTIVE The anatomy of the cavernous sinus (CS) has been well studied in the laboratory for decades; however, performing surgery in and around the CS is still a challenge. To reveal the learning curve for CS surgery via the pretemporal transcavernous approach (PTTC), surgical procedures were examined. The authors proposed 4 levels of surgical difficulty in opening the walls of the CS through this approach. Details of the approach were illustrated by surgical videos of symptomatic intracavernous aneurysm clipping.

METHODS Four levels of surgical difficulty were proposed. The higher the level, the more the CS walls were opened. Pathologies corresponding to each level of difficulty in and around the CS were categorized in each level together with explanations. From 2015 to 2021, 5 patients with symptomatic intracavernous aneurysms (diplopia due to compressive cranial neuropathy) underwent the PTTC at the authors’ institute and served as representative cases in opening the walls of the CS. All CS cases from 2009 to 2021 were reviewed and categorized to demonstrate the learning curve.

RESULTS Four levels of surgical difficulty are as follows: level 1, a basic Dolenc extradural approach, which involves opening the anterior third of the superior and lateral walls of the CS; level 2, mobilizing the internal carotid artery (ICA) and opening the proximal dural ring to enter the roof of the CS and treat lesions around the clinoid and upper cavernous ICA; level 3, opening the entire aspect of the superior and lateral walls of the CS, which involves opening the oculomotor triangle and peeling the lateral wall of the CS to the tentorial incisura; and level 4, mobilizing cranial nerves III, IV, and V1 to gain access to the supra-/infratrochlear triangles to have proximal ICA control and opening the posterior wall as the last step to enter the posterior fossa. Surgical steps were described and illustrated with surgical videos of symptomatic intracavernous aneurysm clipping.

CONCLUSIONS The learning curve for CS surgery is long. The authors use 4 levels of surgical difficulty to describe applications of the PTTC in CS surgery. This approach serves as an effective workhorse in treating CS pathologies with low morbidity and high success rates when performed by experienced neurosurgeons.

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A new classification of parasagittal bridging veins based on their configurations and drainage routes pertinent to interhemispheric approaches: a surgical anatomical study

J Neurosurg 140:271–281, 2024

OBJECTIVE Opening the roof of the interhemispheric microsurgical corridor to access various neurooncological or neurovascular lesions can be demanding because of the multiple bridging veins that drain into the sinus with their highly variable, location-specific anatomy. The objective of this study was to propose a new classification system for these parasagittal bridging veins, which are herein described as being arranged in 3 configurations with 4 drainage routes.

METHODS Twenty adult cadaveric heads (40 hemispheres) were examined. From this examination, the authors describe 3 types of configurations of the parasagittal bridging veins relative to specific anatomical landmarks (coronal suture, postcentral sulcus) and their drainage routes into the superior sagittal sinus, convexity dura, lacunae, and falx. They also quantify the relative incidence and extension of these anatomical variations and provide several preoperative, postoperative, and microneurosurgical clinical case study examples.

RESULTS The authors describe 3 anatomical configurations for venous drainage, which improves on the 2 types that have been previously described. In type 1, a single vein joins; in type 2, 2 or more contiguous veins join; and in type 3, a venous complex joins at the same point. Anterior to the coronal suture, the most common configuration was type 1 dural drainage, occurring in 57% of hemispheres. Between the coronal suture and the postcentral sulcus, most veins (including 73% of superior anastomotic veins of Trolard) drain first into a venous lacuna, which are larger and more numerous in this region. Posterior to the postcentral sulcus, the most common drainage route was through the falx.

CONCLUSIONS The authors propose a systematic classification for the parasagittal venous network. Using anatomical landmarks, they define 3 venous configurations and 4 drainage routes. Analysis of these configurations with respect to surgical routes indicates 2 highly risky interhemispheric surgical fissure routes. The risks are attributable to the presence of large lacunae that receive multiple veins (type 2) or venous complex (type 3) configurations that negatively impact a surgeon’s working space and degree of movement and thus are predisposed to inadvertent avulsions, bleeding, and venous thrombosis.

 

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Distinct Pattern of Membrane Formation With Spinal Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks in Spontaneous Intracranial Hypotension

Operative Neurosurgery 26:71–77, 2024

To systematically describe pertinent, intraoperative anatomic findings encountered when approaching spinal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks and CSF-venous fistulas in spontaneous intracranial hypotension (SIH).

METHODS: In a retrospective study, we included surgically treated patients suffering from SIH at our institution from April 2018 to March 2022. Anatomic, intraoperative data were extracted from operative notes and supplemented with data from surgical videos and images. Prominent anatomic features were compared among different types of CSF leaks.

RESULTS: The study cohort consists of 120 patients with a mean age of 45.2 years. We found four distinct patterns of spinal membranes specifically associated with different types of CSF leaks: (i) thick, dorsal membranes, which were hypervascular and may mimic the dura (pseudodura); (ii) thin, lateral membranes encapsulating a ventral epidural CSF compartment (confining the spinal longitudinal extradural CSF collection); (iii) ventral membranes constituting a transdural funnel–like CSF channel; and (iv) lateral membranes forming spinal cysts/meningeal diverticulae associated with lateral CSF leaks. The latter three types resemble a layer of arachnoid herniated through the dural defect.

CONCLUSION: We describe four distinct spinal (neo-)membranes in association with spinal CSF leaks. Formation of these membranes, or emergence by herniation of arachnoid through a dural defect, constitutes a specific pathoanatomic feature of patients with SIH and CSF leaks. Recognition of these membranes is of paramount importance for diagnosis and treatment of patients with spinal CSF leaks.

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Variability in the Arterial Supply of Intracranial Meningiomas: An Anatomic Study

Neurosurgery 93:1346–1352, 2023

Intracranial meningiomas are a diverse group of tumors, which vary by grade, genetic composition, location, and vasculature. Expanding the understanding of the supply of skull base (SBMs) and non–skull base meningiomas (NSBMs) will serve to further inform resection strategies. We sought to delineate the vascular supply of a series of intracranial meningiomas by tumor location.

METHODS: A retrospective study of intracranial meningiomas that were studied using preoperative digital subtraction angiograms before surgical resection at a tertiary referral center was performed. Patient, tumor, radiologic, and treatment data were collected, and regression models were developed.

RESULTS: One hundred sixty-five patients met inclusion criteria. The mean age was 57.1 years (SD: 12.6). The mean tumor diameter was 4.9 cm (SD: 1.5). One hundred twenty-six were World Health Organization Grade I, 37 Grade II, and 2 Grade III. Arterial feeders were tabulated by Al-Mefty’s anatomic designations. SBMs were more likely to derive arterial supply from the anterior circulation, whereas NSBMs were supplied by external carotid branches. NSBMs were larger (5.61 cm vs 4.45 cm, P = <.001), were more often presented with seizure (20% vs 8%, P = .03), were higher grade (P = <.001) had more frequent peritumoral brain edema (84.6% vs 66%, P = .04), and had more bilateral feeders (47.7% vs 28%, P = .01) compared with SBMs. More arterial feeders were significantly associated with lower tumor grade (P = .023, OR = 0.59). Higher tumor grade (Grade II/III) was associated with fewer arterial feeders (P = .017, RR = 0.74).

CONCLUSION: Meningioma location is associated with specific vascular supply patterns, grade, and patient outcomes. This information suggests that grade I tumors, especially larger tumors, are more likely to have diverse vascular supply patterns, including internal carotid branches. This study may inform preoperative embolization and surgical considerations, particularly for large skull base tumors.

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International Tuberculum Sellae Meningioma Study: Preoperative Grading Scale to Predict Outcomes and Propensity-Matched Outcomes by Endonasal Versus Transcranial Approach

Neurosurgery 93:1271–1284, 2023

Tuberculum sellae meningiomas are resected via an expanded endonasal (EEA) or transcranial approach (TCA). Which approach provides superior outcomes is debated. The Magill–McDermott (M-M) grading scale evaluating tumor size, optic canal invasion, and arterial involvement remains to be validated for outcome prediction. The objective of this study was to validate the M-M scale for predicting visual outcome, extent of resection (EOR), and recurrence, and to use propensity matching by M-M scale to determine whether visual outcome, EOR, or recurrence differ between EEA and TCA.

METHODS: Forty-site retrospective study of 947 patients undergoing tuberculum sellae meningiomas resection. Standard statistical methods and propensity matching were used.

RESULTS: The M-M scale predicted visual worsening (odds ratio [OR]/point: 1.22, 95% CI: 1.02-1.46, P = .0271) and gross total resection (GTR) (OR/point: 0.71, 95% CI: 0.62-0.81, P < .0001), but not recurrence (P = .4695). The scale was simplified and validated in an independent cohort for predicting visual worsening (OR/point: 2.34, 95% CI: 1.33-4.14, P = .0032) and GTR (OR/point: 0.73, 95% CI: 0.57-0.93, P = .0127), but not recurrence (P = .2572). In propensity-matched samples, there was no difference in visual worsening (P = .8757) or recurrence (P = .5678) between TCA and EEA, but GTR was more likely with TCA (OR: 1.49, 95% CI: 1.02-2.18, P = .0409). Matched patients with preoperative visual deficits who had an EEA were more likely to have visual improvement than those undergoing TCA (72.9% vs 58.4%, P = .0010) with equal rates of visual worsening (EEA 8.0% vs TCA 8.6%, P = .8018).

CONCLUSION: The refined M-M scale predicts visual worsening and EOR preoperatively. Preoperative visual deficits are more likely to improve after EEA; however, individual tumor features must be considered during nuanced approach selection by experienced neurosurgeons.

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Anatomic Variants in the Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery Encountered During Resection of Vestibular Schwannomas

Operative Neurosurgery 25:512–520, 2023

Vestibular schwannomas (VS) are often phenotypically benign lesions that may be technically challenging to resect because of involvement of neurovascular structures. The anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AICA) is commonly identified near VS, with variable position in relation to the tumor; however, little published literature describes anatomic and pathologic variants of AICA observed during VS resection.

METHODS: A prospectively maintained cohort of surgically managed VS with available operative reports and clinical/ radiographic follow-up was queried and reviewed for noted aberrations.

RESULTS: We identified 66 cases with noted AICA abnormalities among 880 reviewer cases, including 20 loops extending into the internal auditory canal (2.3%), 18 arteries embedded in dura (2.0%), 15 AICA branches directly within VS (1.7%), 8 main trunk arteries coursing between cranial nerves 7 and 8 (0.9%), 3 arteries embedded in temporal bone (0.2%), 1 aneurysm (0.1%), and 1 artery bifurcating cranial nerve 6 (0.1%). The median age of AICA-variant patients was 55 years (range 19-74), and 29 were female (45%). Compared with the other AICA variants, tumors embedded with AICA tended to be larger lesions on maximal axial diameter (2.9 vs 1.6 cm; P = .006), they more commonly underwent less than total resection (73% vs 28%; P = .0001), and they had higher rates postoperative House-Brackmann scores >2 (47% vs 20%; P = .005). Two patients had radiographic and symptomatic postoperative cerebral ischemia or hemorrhage—1 from a bone-encased AICA and 1 from a dural embedded variant.

CONCLUSION: Anatomic variants of AICA occur in approximately 7% of VS operations. Most aberrations do not affect surgical or clinical outcomes, and the rate of major vascular injury was low. However, certain types variably add operative time and in the case of AICA encasement in the tumor, likely indicate a more aggressive tumor phenotype with lower rates of gross total resection and high incidences of facial nerve weakness.

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A taxonomy for deep cerebral cavernous malformations: subtypes of thalamic lesions

J Neurosurg 139:1681–1696, 2023

Anatomical taxonomy is a practical tool to successfully guide clinical decision-making for patients with brain arteriovenous malformations and brainstem cavernous malformations (CMs). Deep cerebral CMs are complex, difficult to access, and highly variable in size, shape, and position. The authors propose a novel taxonomic system for deep CMs in the thalamus based on clinical presentation (syndromes) and anatomical location (identified on MRI).

METHODS The taxonomic system was developed and applied to an extensive 2-surgeon experience from 2001 through 2019. Deep CMs involving the thalamus were identified. These CMs were subtyped on the basis of the predominant surface presentation identified on preoperative MRI. Six subtypes among 75 thalamic CMs were defined: anterior (7/75, 9%), medial (22/75, 29%), lateral (10/75, 13%), choroidal (9/75, 12%), pulvinar (19/75, 25%), and geniculate (8/75, 11%). Neurological outcomes were assessed using modified Rankin Scale (mRS) scores. A postoperative score ≤ 2 was defined as a favorable outcome and > 2 as a poor outcome. Clinical and surgical characteristics and neurological outcomes were compared among subtypes.

RESULTS Seventy-five patients underwent resection of thalamic CMs and had clinical and radiological data available. Their mean age was 40.9 (SD 15.2) years. Each thalamic CM subtype was associated with a recognizable constellation of neurological symptoms. The common symptoms were severe or worsening headaches (30/75, 40%), hemiparesis (27/75, 36%), hemianesthesia (21/75, 28%), blurred vision (14/75, 19%), and hydrocephalus (9/75, 12%). The thalamic CM subtype determined the selection of surgical approach. A single approach was associated with each subtype for most patients. The main exception to this paradigm was that in the surgeons’ early experience, pulvinar CMs were resected through a superior parietal lobule–transatrial approach (4/19, 21%), which later evolved to the paramedian supracerebellar-infratentorial approach (12/19, 63%). Relative outcomes implied by mRS scores were unchanged or improved in most patients (61/66, 92%) postoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS This study confirms the authors’ hypothesis that this taxonomy for thalamic CMs can meaningfully guide the selection of surgical approach and resection strategy. The proposed taxonomy can increase diagnostic acumen at the patient bedside, help identify optimal surgical approaches, enhance the clarity of clinical communications and publications, and improve patient outcomes.

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Comparative Analysis of Surgical Working Corridors for Meckel Cave Trigeminal Schwannomas: A Quantitative Anatomic Study

Operative Neurosurgery 25:E251–E266, 2023

Volumetric analysis of the working corridors of the interdural approach to the Meckel cave may lead to a selection of routes which are anatomically more advantageous for trigeminal schwannoma resection. The herein-reported anatomic study quantitively compares the infratrochlear (IT) transcavernous, anteromedial (AM), and anterolateral (AL) corridors, highlighting their feasibility, indications, advantages, and limitations.

METHODS: Anatomic boundaries and depth of Meckel cave, porus trigeminus, IT transcavernous, AM, and AL corridors were identified in 20 formalin-fixed latex-injected cadaveric heads and were subsequently measured. The corridor areas and volumes were derived accordingly. Each opening angle was also calculated. Angles and volumes were compared using analysis of variance. Statistical significance was set at a P-value <.05.

RESULTS: The IT transcavernous corridor volume was greater than that of the AM and AL. The opening angle of the AM middle fossa triangle was wider than the other 2.

CONCLUSION: The IT corridor can be advantageous for Meckel cave schwannomas invading the cavernous sinus and those with a notable extension into the posterior fossa because the transcavernous approach maximizes the working space into the retrosellar area. The AM middle fossa corridor is strategic in schwannomas confined to the Meckel cave with a minor extension into the posterior fossa. It raises the chance of total resection with a single approach involving the porus trigeminus opening.

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The “candy wrapper” of the pituitary gland: a road map to the parasellar ligaments and the medial wall of the cavernous sinus

Acta Neurochirurgica (2023) 165:3431–3444

The anatomy of the medial wall of the cavernous sinus (MWCS) and parasellar ligaments (PLs) has acquired increasing importance in endoscopic endonasal (EE) surgery of the cavernous sinus (CS), including resection of the MWCS in functioning pituitary adenomas (FPAs). Although anatomical studies have been published, it represents a debated topic due to their complex morphology. The aim is to offer a description of the PLs that originate from the MWCS and reach the lateral wall of the cavernous sinus (LWCS), proposing the “candy wrapper” model. The relationships between the neurovascular structures and histomorphological aspects were investigated.

Methods Forty-two CSs from twenty-one human heads were studied. Eleven specimens were used for EE dissection; five underwent a microscopic dissection. Five specimens were used for histomorphological analysis.

Results Two groups of PLs with a fan-shaped appearance were encountered. The anterior group included the periosteal ligament (55% sides) and the carotico-clinoid complex (100% sides), formed by the anterior horizontal and the carotico-clinoid ligaments. The posterior group was formed by the posterior horizontal (78% sides), and the inferior hypophyseal ligament (34% sides). The periosteal ligament originated inferiorly from the MWCS, reaching the periosteal dura. The anterior horizontal ligament was divided in a superior and inferior branch. The superior one continued as the carotid-oculomotor membrane, and the inferior branch reached the CN VI. The carotico-clinoid ligament between the middle and anterior clinoid was ossified in 3 sides. The posterior horizontal ligament was related to the posterior genu and ended at the LWCS. The inferior hypophyseal ligament followed the homonym artery. The ligaments related to the ICA form part of the adventitia. Conclusion The “candy wrapper” model adds further details to the previous descriptions of the PLs. Understanding this complex anatomy is essential for safe CS surgery, including MWCS resection for FPAs.

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