Category: radiosurgery

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Repeat gamma knife radiosurgery for recurrent trigeminal neuralgia

Acta Neurochirurgica (2026) 168:143

This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluates outcomes after repeat Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) for recurrent trigeminal neuralgia, pooling data from 21 studies comprising 2,020 retreatments. It quantifies efficacy (BNI I–III favourable pain control ~77% after retreatment, 62% at long-term follow-up) and recurrence (~29%), and reports complication rates, notably facial hypoesthesia (~39%).

The paper follows PRISMA and Cochrane guidance, performs single-arm GLMM meta-analyses, sensitivity checks, and meta-regressions that found no consistent predictors of outcome. Limitations include retrospective series, moderate–severe bias, substantial heterogeneity, and variable dosimetry and reporting; prospective standardized studies are recommended.

Clinical context Trigeminal neuralgia causes intense, episodic, shock-like facial pain; Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) is used for medically refractory cases, and recurrence after initial GKRS can prompt consideration of repeat GKRS.

Study design Systematic review and meta-analysis conducted under PRISMA guidance; included English-language studies of patients needing repeat GKRS after inadequate response to medications and/or a single GKRS, with ≥12 months follow-up.

Evidence base 21 studies were included, comprising 2,486 initially treated patients and 2,020 undergoing repeat GKRS; most were female, median ages ranged 54.5–79.6 years, and ~85% were idiopathic trigeminal neuralgia.

Treatment patterns Most repeat procedures targeted the trigeminal root entry zone (REZ), typically using 70–80 Gy marginal doses; intervals between procedures varied widely (5–138 months; median ≈36 months).

Effectiveness Pain relief after repeat GKRS commonly occurred in ~70–90% of patients with typical improvement in BNI pain scores (often IV–V to I–IIIb); pooled favourable pain control (BNI I–III) after the latest treatment was 76.68%.

Durability & recurrence Median follow-up ranged 14–74 months; recurrence after repeat GKRS was reported around 10–35% (pooled recurrence 29.07%), and favourable pain control at last follow-up decreased to 61.94%.

Safety profile Facial sensory disturbances were frequent (reported 20–45%; pooled facial hypoesthesia 39.04%); bothersome dysesthesias and anesthesia dolorosa were uncommon (<3%).

Predictors/heterogeneity Meta-regression found no significant association between pain relief and age, pain duration, interval since prior GKRS, or dose, with substantial inter-study heterogeneity persisting.

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Long-term tumor control after Gamma Knife radiosurgery for sporadic vestibular schwannoma

J Neurosurg 144:965–971, 2026

This clinical study evaluates long-term tumor control after single-fraction Gamma Knife stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for sporadic vestibular schwannoma in 749 adults treated from 2000–2022, reporting Kaplan–Meier control rates of 100%, 98%, 96%, 92%, and 91% at 1, 3, 5, 10, and 15 years respectively. Patient demographics, SRS dosing, and complication rates—including low persistent facial paresis—are summarized with statistical analysis and clear definitions for growth, pseudoprogression, and salvage.

The authors detail three post-SRS tumor behavior patterns, finding 13% pseudoprogression (mostly within 5 years) and 42 salvage treatments (median 3.7 years), and conclude that SRS offers durable control while emphasizing the need for prolonged surveillance and nuanced clinical decision-making about retreatment.

Objective Assess long-term efficacy of single-fraction stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) as primary treatment for adult, treatment-naïve sporadic vestibular schwannoma (Gamma Knife), treated from 2000–2022.

Cohort 749 adults included; 76% had tumors extending into the cerebellopontine angle (CPA) at SRS; median age 62; 50% women; 99% had House-Brackmann (HB) grade I facial nerve function at SRS.

Long-term tumor control Tumor control after SRS remained high: 100% (1 yr), 98% (3 yr), 96% (5 yr), 92% (10 yr), and 91% (15 yr).

Radiosurgical failure/salvage 42 patients required salvage (35 microsurgery, 7 repeat SRS), median 3.7 years post-SRS; 3 salvage treatments occurred >10 years after SRS, indicating late failures can occur.

Risk factors Age, macrocystic tumor presence, and treated tumor volume were not significantly associated with risk of salvage in univariable analysis.

Post-SRS tumor patterns Three post-SRS behaviors were observed: (1) stability/shrinkage, (2) pseudoprogression (growth then stability/shrinkage), and (3) continued growth without stability at last follow-up.

Pseudoprogression timing 13% experienced pseudoprogression; all but 4 showed it by year 5 post-SRS, though some initial growth occurred later (e.g., 5.1–8.6 years) with subsequent stability on follow-up imaging.

Conclusion/implication SRS provides durable control through 15 years for most patients (91%), but ongoing long-term surveillance is needed because failures may occur even beyond 10 years and pseudoprogression can be seen out to ≥5 years.

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Single-Fraction Stereotactic Radiosurgery as Primary Management of Sporadic Meningiomas: A 25-Year Cohort Study

Neurosurgery 97:1267–1274, 2025

This study reports long-term outcomes of single‑fraction Gamma Knife stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) as primary treatment for 653 sporadic intracranial meningiomas in 616 patients over a 25‑year period. With median margin dose 15 Gy and median imaging follow-up 6.3 years, progression‑free survival was excellent (99.8% at 5 years, 99.0% at 10 years), and raw tumor control reached 98.6%.

Treatment‑related neurological sequelae were uncommon (1.8% permanent/intervention), though larger tumor volume, higher V12, and greater number of isocenters increased complication risk. The authors conclude single‑fraction SRS at studied doses offers high long‑term control for small‑to‑medium sporadic meningiomas, emphasizing careful patient selection.

Stereotactic Radiosurgery (SRS) Effectiveness: Single-fraction SRS is highly effective as a primary treatment for sporadic, small- to medium-volume intracranial meningiomas, achieving a 99% tumor control rate at 10 years and 93% at 15 years progression-free survival (PFS).

Low Permanent Morbidity: The risk of permanent treatment-related neurological complications is low (1.8%), with most side effects being temporary or minor.

Key Predictors of Outcome: Larger tumor volume is the main predictor of both tumor progression and treatment-related complications, emphasizing the importance of patient selection for SRS.

Radiosurgical Parameters: Increased number of isocenters, higher 12-Gy volume (V12), larger tumor volume, and lower maximal dose are associated with higher risk of treatment-related complications.

Comparison to Observation: SRS provides superior tumor control compared to observation in patients with incidentally discovered, asymptomatic meningiomas, with similar rates of new neurological deficits.

Radiation Dose Recommendations: A median margin dose of 13–15 Gy balances long-term tumor control and risk of complications; doses below 12 Gy may increase recurrence risk, while higher doses increase morbidity.

Biological Effective Dose (BED): In this cohort, higher BED was not predictive of improved PFS, likely due to the already high dosing protocol; however, other studies suggest BED can be a useful predictor when a wider dose range is used.

Limitations: The study is retrospective and single-institution, with potential selection bias and incomplete follow-up; findings may not generalize to syndromic or radiation-induced meningiomas.

 

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Detailed Analysis of Late Adverse Effects of Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Dural Arteriovenous Fistulas

Neurosurgery 97:1368–1376, 2025

This single-center retrospective study evaluates long-term late radiation-induced complications (LRICs) after stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVFs) in 30 patients over a median 99-month follow-up, reporting obliteration rates, post-SRS T2 signal changes, and incidence of chronic encapsulated hematoma (CEH). Findings show high DAVF obliteration (79.6% at 5 years) with rare but notable LRICs (11.1% at 10 years), and an association between post-SRS signal changes and CEH occurrence.

The report details radiosurgical techniques, diagnostic criteria, case courses of two asymptomatic CEHs managed conservatively, and discusses pathophysiology linking radiation, VEGF-mediated permeability, and lesion expansion. The authors recommend prolonged imaging surveillance, heightened monitoring for patients with post-SRS T2 changes, and call for larger multicenter studies to refine predictive models and management strategies.

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Risk of late radiation necrosis more than 5 years after stereotactic radiosurgery

J Neurosurg 142:1117–1124, 2025

This study investigates late radiation necrosis (LRN) occurring over 5 years post-stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS). It identifies risk factors, management strategies, and emphasizes the need for long-term follow-up, particularly for patients with a brain V12 Gy > 5 cm³ or history of early RN.

• Late Radiation Necrosis (LRN): LRN is a late complication occurring more than 5 years after stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and is associated with new neurological symptoms and specific imaging changes without disease recurrence.

• Study Objective: This study analyzes the incidence and risk factors for LRN occurring more than 5 years after SRS, highlighting that LRN risk persists beyond 5 years.

• Risk Factors: Significant risk factors for LRN include a brain V12 Gy > 5 cm³ and a history of early RN. Higher prescription doses and treatment to multiple lesions also increase LRN risk.

• Incidence and Management: LRN occurred in 8.7% of patients and 7.7% of lesions, with a median onset of 6.1 years post-SRS. Management included steroids, bevacizumab, and surgical resection when necessary.

• Imaging Features: LRN lesions showed T2/FLAIR hyperintensity, cystic changes, and T1-weighted postcontrast enhancement.

• Pathophysiology: LRN shares a similar pathophysiology with early RN, but with distinct features like cystic changes.

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Preoperative stereotactic radiosurgery for cerebral metastases: safe, effective, and decreases steroid dependency

J Neurosurg 141:1332–1342, 2024

Preoperative stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) is emerging as a viable alternative to standard postoperative SRS. Studies have suggested that preoperative SRS provides comparable tumor control and overall survival (OS) and may reduce the incidence of leptomeningeal disease (LMD) and adverse radiation effects (AREs). It is unknown, however, if preoperative SRS remains effective in cohorts including large brain metastases (> 14 cm 3 ) or if preoperative SRS affects steroid taper/immunotherapy. Here, the authors report the results of a phase 2 single-arm trial assessing a prospectively acquired series of 26 patients who underwent preoperative SRS, without a volumetric cutoff, compared with a propensity score–matched concurrent cohort of 30 patients who underwent postoperative SRS to address these salient questions.

METHODS Demographics, oncological history, surgical details, and outcomes were collected from the medical records. Coprimary endpoints were local tumor control (LTC) and a composite outcome of LTC, ARE, and LMD. Additional outcomes were OS, steroid taper details, and immunotherapy resumption. For survival analyses, cohorts were propensity score matched.

RESULTS Preoperative and postoperative SRS patients were comparable in terms of age, sex, Karnofsky Performance Status score, oncological history, and operative details. Gross tumor volume (GTV) was significantly higher in the preoperative group (median 12.2 vs 5.3 cm 3 , p < 0.001). One-year LTC (preoperative SRS: 77.2% vs postoperative SRS: 82.5%, p = 0.61) and composite outcome (68.3% vs 72.7%, p = 0.38) were not significantly different between the groups. In multivariable analysis, preoperative SRS did not have a significant effect on LTC (HR 1.57 [95% CI 0.38–6.49], p = 0.536) or the composite outcome (HR 1.18 [95% CI 0.38–3.72], p = 0.771), although the confidence intervals were large. The median OS (preoperative SRS: 17.0 vs postoperative SRS: 14.0 months, p = 0.61) was not significantly different. Rates of LMD were nonsignificantly lower in the preoperative SRS group (3.8% vs 16.7%, p = 0.200). Greater GTV volume was associated with prolonged (> 10 days) steroid taper (OR 1.24 [95% CI 1.04–1.55], p = 0.032). However, in multivariable analysis, preoperative SRS markedly reduced the steroid taper length (OR 0.13 [95% CI 0.02–0.61], p = 0.016). Time to immunotherapy was shorter in the preoperative SRS group (36 [IQR 26, 76] vs OR 228 [IQR 129, 436] days, p = 0.02).

CONCLUSIONS Compared with postoperative SRS, preoperative SRS is a safe and effective strategy in the management of cerebral metastases of all sizes and provides comparable tumor control without increased adverse effects. Notably, preoperative SRS enabled rapid steroid taper, even in larger tumors. Future studies should specifically examine the interaction of preoperative SRS with steroid usage and resumption of systemic therapies and the subsequent effects on systemic progression and OS.

Clinical trial registration no.: NCT02514915 (ClinicalTrials.gov)

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Radiosurgery With Prior Embolization Versus Radiosurgery Alone for Intracranial Arteriovenous Malformations

Neurosurgery 94:478–496, 2024

The addition of adjuvant embolization to radiosurgery has been proposed as a means of improving treatment outcomes of intracranial arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). However, the relative efficacy and safety of radiosurgery with adjuvant embolization vs radiosurgery alone remain uncertain. Moreover, previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses have included a limited number of studies and did not consider the effects of baseline characteristics, including AVM volume, on the outcomes. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the efficacy of preradiosurgery embolization for intracranial AVMs with consideration to matching status between participants in each treatment group.

METHODS: A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted by searching electronic databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Library, up to January 2023. All studies evaluating the utilization of preradiosurgery embolization were included.

RESULTS: A total of 70 studies (9 matched and 71 unmatched) with a total of 12 088 patients were included. The mean age of the included patients was 32.41 years, and 48.91% of the patients were female. Preradiosurgery embolization was used for larger AVMs and patients with previous hemorrhage (P < .01, P = .02, respectively). The obliteration rate for preradiosurgery embolization (49.44%) was lower compared with radiosurgery alone (61.42%, odds ratio = 0.56, P < .01), regardless of the matching status of the analyzed studies. Although prior embolization was associated higher rate of cyst formation (P = .04), it lowered the odds of radiation-induced changes (P = .04). The risks of minor and major neurological deficits, postradiosurgery hemorrhage, and mortality were comparable between groups.

CONCLUSION: This study provides evidence that although preradiosurgery embolization is a suitable option to reduce the AVM size for future radiosurgical interventions, it may not be useful for same-sized AVMs eligible for radiosurgery. Utilization of preradiosurgery embolization in suitable lesions for radiosurgery may result in the added cost and burden of an endovascular procedure.

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Repeat Gamma Knife radiosurgery for recurrent trigeminal neuralgia in patients with multiple sclerosis

Acta Neurochirurgica (2024) 166:15

Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) has emerged as an effective treatment option for trigeminal neuralgia (TN) in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). To date, the outcomes of repeat GKRS for patients with TN and MS with recurrent pain have been investigated in a few patients. This study aims to report the outcomes and predictive factors of pain reduction for MS patients undergoing repeat GKRS for recurrent TN.

Methods Eighteen patients with MS underwent repeat GKRS for recurrent TN. A retrospective chart review and telephone interviews were conducted to determine background medical history, dosimetric data, and outcomes of the procedure. Facial pain and sensory function were evaluated using the Barrow Neurological Institute (BNI) scales.

Results Fifteen patients achieved a BNI pain score of IIIa or better, indicating pain reduction, within a median period of 21 days after repeat GKRS. The maximum dose for repeat GKRS ranged from 70 to 85 Gy. Pain recurred in 5 patients after a median period of 12 months after GKRS. Percentages of patients with pain reduction at 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 years were 60%, 60%, 50%, 50%, and 50%, respectively. Older age at repeat GKRS predicted sustained pain reduction (P = 0.01). Seven patients developed facial sensory disturbances, which were bothersome in two patients.

Conclusions Repeat GKRS may be used as an effective treatment modality for prolonging the duration of pain reduction time in patients with MS and TN. After repeat GKRS, facial sensory disturbances are common; however, they are often not bothersome.

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The longitudinal volumetric response of vestibular schwannomas after Gamma Knife radiosurgery

J Neurosurg 138:1273–1280, 2023

Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) is an effective treatment for vestibular schwannomas (VSs) and has been used in > 100,000 cases worldwide. In the present study the authors sought to define the serial volumetric tumor response of Koos grade I–IV VS after radiosurgery.

METHODS A total of 201 consecutive VS patients underwent GKRS at a single institution between 2015 and 2019. All patients had a minimum follow-up of 18 months and at least 2 interval postprocedure MRI scans. The contrast-enhanced tumor volumes were contoured manually and compared between pre- and post-GKRS imaging. The percentages of tumor volume change at 18 months (short-term follow-up) and up to 5 years after GKRS (long-term follow-up) were compared with the baseline tumor volume. An increase of 20% was considered a significant increase of tumor volume. Trends of tumor volume over time were assessed with linear models using time as a continuous variable. A test for linear trend was evaluated according to the initial Koos tumor classification.

RESULTS Koos grade II VS was the most frequently occurring tumor (n = 74, 36.8%), followed by grade III (n = 57, 28.4%), grade I (n = 41, 20.4%), and grade IV (n = 29, 14.4%). The mean tumor volume at the time of GKRS was 2.12 ±2.82 cm 3 (range 0.12–18.77 cm 3 ) and the median margin dose was 12 Gy. Short-term follow-up revealed that tumor volumes transiently increased in 34.2% and 28.4% of patients at 6 and 18 months, respectively, regardless of Koos grade. Linear regression analysis of Koos grade II, III, and IV tumors showed a significant longitudinal volume decrease on long-term follow-up. At last follow-up (median 30 months, range 18–54 months), 19 patients (9.4%) showed a persistent increase of tumor volume. Five patients received additional management after GKRS.

CONCLUSIONS Although selected VS patients demonstrate an early and measurable transient volumetric increase after GKRS, > 90% have stable or reduced tumor volumes over an observed period of up to 5 years. Volumetric regression is most pronounced in Koos grade II, III, and IV tumors and may not be fully detectable until 3 years after GKRS.

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Chronic Encapsulated Expanding Hematomas After Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Intracranial Arteriovenous Malformations

Neurosurgery 92:195–204, 2023

Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) offers a minimally invasive treatment modality for appropriately selected intracranial arteriovenous malformations (AVMs). Recent reports have described the development of rare, delayed chronic encapsulated expanding hematomas (CEEHs) at the site of an angiographically confirmed obliterated AVM.

OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the incidence, characteristics, and management of CEEH in patients with AVM after SRS.

METHODS: The records of all patients who underwent SRS for an intracranial AVM at 4 institutions participating in the International Radiosurgery Research Foundation between 1987 and 2021 were retrospectively reviewed. Data regarding characteristics of the AVM, SRS treatment parameters, CEEH presentation, management, and outcomes were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS: Among 5430 patients, 15 developed a CEEH at a crude incidence of 0.28%. Nine patients were female, and the mean age was 43 ± 14.6 years. Nine patients underwent surgical evacuation, while 6 were managed conservatively. The median CEEH development latency was 106 months after SRS. The patients were followed for a median of 32 months, and 9 patients improved clinically, while 6 patients remained stable. No intraoperative complications were reported after CEEH resection, although 1 patient recovered from postoperative meningitis requiring intravenous antibiotics.

CONCLUSION: CEEH is a rare, late complication of AVM SRS with an incidence of 0.28% and a median latency of 106 months. In the presence of a delayed and symptomatic expanding hematoma in the bed of an angiographically obliterated AVM, surgical resection resulted in clinical improvement in most patients. Conservative management is possible in asymptomatic patients with stable, small-sized hematomas in deeply seated locations.

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Stereotactic radiosurgery for Koos grade IV vestibular schwannoma in patients ≥ 65 years old

Acta Neurochirurgica (2023) 165:211–220

Surgery is the preferred treatment for large vestibular schwannomas (VS). Good tumor control and cranial nerve outcomes were described in selected Koos IV VS after single-session stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), but outcomes in elderly patients have never been specifically studied. The aim of this study is to report clinical and radiological outcomes after single-session SRS for Koos IV VS in patients ≥ 65 years old.

Method This multicenter, retrospective study included patients ≥ 65 years old, treated with primary, single-session SRS for a Koos IV VS, and at least 12 months of follow-up. Patients with life-threatening or incapacitating symptoms were excluded. Tumor control rate, hearing, trigeminal, and facial nerve function were studied at last follow-up.

Results One-hundred and fifty patients (median age of 71.0 (IQR 9.0) years old with a median tumor volume of 8.3 cc (IQR 4.4)) were included. The median prescription dose was 12.0 Gy (IQR 1.4). The local tumor control rate was 96.0% and 86.2% at 5 and 10 years, respectively. Early tumor expansion occurred in 6.7% and was symptomatic in 40% of cases. A serviceable hearing was present in 16.1% prior to SRS and in 7.4% at a last follow-up of 46.5 months (IQR 55.8). The actuarial serviceable hearing preservation rate was 69.3% and 50.9% at 5 and 10 years, respectively. Facial nerve function preservation or improvement rates at 5 and 10 years were 98.7% and 91.0%, respectively. At last follow-up, the trigeminal nerve function was improved in 14.0%, stable in 80.7%, and worsened in 5.3% of the patients. ARE were noted in 12.7%. New hydrocephalus was seen in 8.0% of patients.

Conclusion SRS can be a safe alternative to surgery for selected Koos IV VS in patients ≥ 65 years old. Further follow-up is warranted.

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Audiovestibular symptoms and facial nerve function comparing microsurgery versus SRS for vestibular schwannomas

Acta Neurochirurgica (2022) 164:3221–3233

Surgery and radiosurgery represent the most common treatment options forcvestibular schwannoma. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to compare the outcomes of surgery versus stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS).

Methods The Cochrane library, PubMed, Embase, and clinicaltrials.gov were searched through 01/2021 to find all studies on surgical and stereotactic procedures performed to treat vestibular schwannoma. Using a random-effects model, pooled odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) comparing post- to pre-intervention were derived for pre-post studies, and pooled incidence of adverse events post-intervention were calculated for case series and stratified by intervention type.

Results Twenty-one studies (18 pre-post design; three case series) with 987 patients were included in the final analysis. Comparing post- to pre-intervention, both surgery (OR: 3.52, 95%CI 2.13, 5.81) and SRS (OR: 3.30, 95%CI 1.39, 7.80) resulted in greater odds of hearing loss, lower odds of dizziness (surgery OR: 0.10; 95%CI 0.02, 0.47 vs. SRS OR: 0.22; 95%CI 0.05, 0.99), and tinnitus (surgery OR: 0.23; 95%CI 0.00, 37.9; two studies vs. SRS OR: 0.11; 95%CI 0.01, 1.07; one study). Pooled incidence of facial symmetry loss was larger post-surgery (14.3%, 95%CI 6.8%, 22.7%) than post-SRS (7%, 95%CI 1%, 36%). Tumor control was larger in the surgery (94%, 95%CI 83%, 98%) than the SRS group (80%, 95%CI 31%, 97%) for small-to-medium size tumors.

Conclusion Both surgery and SRS resulted in similar odds of hearing loss and similar improvements in dizziness and tinnitus among patients with vestibular schwannoma; however, facial symmetry loss appeared higher post-surgery.

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Stereotactic radiosurgery for intracranial chordomas: an international multiinstitutional study

J Neurosurg 137:977–984, 2022

The object of this study was to evaluate the safety, efficacy, and long-term outcomes of stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) in the management of intracranial chordomas.

METHODS This retrospective multicenter study involved consecutive patients managed with single-session SRS for an intracranial chordoma at 10 participating centers. Radiological and neurological outcomes were assessed after SRS, and predictive factors were evaluated via statistical methodology.

RESULTS A total of 93 patients (56 males [60.2%], mean age 44.8 years [SD 16.6]) underwent single-session SRS for intracranial chordoma. SRS was utilized as adjuvant treatment in 77 (82.8%) cases, at recurrence in 13 (14.0%) cases, and as primary treatment in 3 (3.2%) cases. The mean tumor volume was 8 cm 3 (SD 7.3), and the mean prescription volume was 9.1 cm 3 (SD 8.7). The mean margin and maximum radiosurgical doses utilized were 17 Gy (SD 3.6) and 34.2 Gy (SD 6.4), respectively. On multivariate analysis, treatment failure due to tumor progression (p = 0.001) was associated with an increased risk for post-SRS neurological deterioration, and a maximum dose > 29 Gy (p = 0.006) was associated with a decreased risk. A maximum dose > 29 Gy was also associated with improved local tumor control (p = 0.02), whereas the presence of neurological deficits prior to SRS (p = 0.04) and an age > 65 years at SRS (p = 0.03) were associated with worse local tumor control. The 5- and 10-year tumor progression-free survival rates were 54.7% and 34.7%, respectively. An age > 65 years at SRS (p = 0.01) was associated with decreased overall survival. The 5and 10-year overall survival rates were 83% and 70%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS SRS appears to be a safe and relatively effective adjuvant management option for intracranial chordomas. The best outcomes were obtained in younger patients without significant neurological deficits. Further well-designed studies are necessary to define the best timing for the use of SRS in the multidisciplinary management of intracranial chordomas.

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Matched Comparison of Hearing Outcomes in Patients With Vestibular Schwannoma Treated With Stereotactic Radiosurgery or Observation

Neurosurgery 91:641–647, 2022

Previous studies comparing hearing outcomes in patients managed with stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) and a watch-and-wait strategy were limited by small sample sizes that prevented controlling for potential confounders, including initial hearing status, tumor size, and age.

OBJECTIVE: To compare hearing outcomes for patients with vestibular schwannomas (VS) managed with observation and SRS while controlling for confounders with propensity score matching.

METHODS: Propensity score matching was used to compare 198 patients with unilateral VS with initial serviceable hearing (99 treated with SRS and 99 managed with observation alone) and 116 with initial class A hearing (58 managed with SRS and 58 with observation), matched by initial hearing status, tumor volume, age, and sex. Kaplan–Meier survival methods were used to compare risk of losing class A and serviceable hearing.

RESULTS: Between patients with VS managed with SRS or observation alone, there was no significant difference in loss of class A hearing (median time 27.2 months, 95% CI 16.843.4, and 29.2 months, 95% CI 20.4-62.5, P = .88) or serviceable hearing (median time 37.7 months, 95% CI 25.7-58.4, and 48.8 months, 95% CI 38.4-86.3, P = .18). For SRS patients, increasing mean cochlear dose was not related to loss of class A hearing (hazard ratio 1.3, P = .17) but was associated with increasing risk of serviceable hearing loss (hazard ratio of 1.5 per increase in Gy, P = .017).

CONCLUSION: When controlling for potential confounders, there was no significant difference in loss of class A or serviceable hearing between patients managed with SRS or with observation alone.

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Long-Term Risks of Hemorrhage and Adverse Radiation Effects of Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Brain Arteriovenous Malformations

Neurosurgery 90:784–792, 2022

The information about long-term risks of hemorrhage and late adverse radiation effects (AREs) after stereotactic radiosurgery for brain arteriovenous malformations (AVMs) is lacking.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the long-term risks of hemorrhage and late ARE rates in patients with AVM treated with Gamma Knife surgery (GKS). METHODS: We examined 1249 patients with AVM treated with GKS. The Spetzler–Martin grade was I in 313 patients (25%), II in 394 (32%), III in 458 (37%), and IV/V in 84 (7%). The median treatment volume was 2.5 cm3, and the median marginal dose was 20 Gy.

RESULTS: The median follow-up period was 61 months. The 5- and 10-year nidus obliteration rates were 63% and 82%, respectively. The 5- and 10-year cumulative hemorrhage rates were 7% and 10%, respectively. The annual hemorrhage rate was 1.5% for the first 5 years post-GKS, which decreased to 0.5% thereafter. During the follow-up period, 42 symptomatic cyst formations/ chronic encapsulated hematomas ([CFs/CEHs], 3%) and 3 radiation-induced tumors (0.2%) were observed. The 10- and 15-year cumulative CF/CEH rates were 3.7% and 9.4%, respectively.

CONCLUSION: GKS is associated with reduced hemorrhage risk and high nidus obliteration rates in patients with AVM. The incidence of late AREs tended to increase over time. The most common ARE was CF/CEH, which can be safely removed; however, careful attention should be paid to the long-term development of fatal radiation-induced tumors.

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Management of cavernous sinus meningiomas: Consensus statement on behalf of the EANS skull base section

Brain and Spine 2 (2022) 100864

The evolution of cavernous sinus meningiomas (CSMs) might be unpredictable and the efficacy of their treatments is challenging due to their indolent evolution, variations and fluctuations of symptoms, heterogeneity of classifications and lack of randomized controlled trials. Here, a dedicated task force provides a consensus statement on the overall management of CSMs. Research question: To determine the best overall management of CSMs, depending on their clinical presentation, size, and evolution as well as patient characteristics.

Material and methods: Using the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we included literature from January 2000 to December 2020. A total of 400 abstracts and 77 titles were kept for full-paper screening.

Results: The task force formulated 8 recommendations (Level C evidence). CSMs should be managed by a highly specialized multidisciplinary team. The initial evaluation of patients includes clinical, ophthalmological, endocrinological and radiological assessment. Treatment of CSM should involve experienced skull-base neurosurgeons or neuro-radiosurgeons, radiation oncologists, radiologists, ophthalmologists, and endocrinologists.

Discussion and conclusion: Radiosurgery is preferred as first-line treatment in small, enclosed, pauci-symptomatic lesions/in elderly patients, while large CSMs not amenable to resection or WHO grade II-III are candidates for radiotherapy. Microsurgery is an option in aggressive/rapidly progressing lesions in young patients presenting with oculomotor/visual/endocrinological impairment. Whenever surgery is offered, open cranial approaches are the current standard. There is limited experience reported about endoscopic endonasal approach for CSMs and the main indication is decompression of the cavernous sinus to improve symptoms. Whenever surgery is indicated, the current trend is to offer decompression followed by radiosurgery.

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Stereotactic radiosurgery for cerebral cavernous malformation: comparison of hemorrhage rates before and after stereotactic radiosurgery

J Neurosurg 136:655–661, 2022

Cerebral cavernous malformation (CM) is an angiographically occult vascular pathology. Although microsurgery is the gold standard treatment to control the symptoms of CM, resection carries high risk in some situations, especially eloquent areas. The objective was to evaluate annual hemorrhage rates (AHRs) before and after stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) treatment of cerebral CM in different locations.

METHODS A total of 195 patients (119 women and 76 men) with CM treated at the Gazi University Gamma Knife Center between April 2005 and June 2017 were analyzed. The mean   SD follow-up period was 67.4   31.1 months (range 12 days to 170 months). AHR before SRS, AHR after SRS, morbidity associated with radiation, seizure control rate after SRS, lesion volume, coexistence with developmental venous anomaly, and SRS treatment parameters were analyzed, with evaluation of radiological data and clinical charts performed retrospectively. The seizure control rate was assessed using the Engel outcome scale.

RESULTS The AHR before SRS was 15.3%. Application of SRS to these patients significantly reduced the AHR rates to 2.6% during the first 2 years after treatment and to 1.4% thereafter. Favorable seizure control (Engel class I and II) after radiosurgery was achieved in 23 patients (88.5%) with epilepsy. Radiation-related temporary complications occurred in 15.4% of patients, and permanent morbidity occurred in 4.6%.

CONCLUSIONS SRS is a safe and effective treatment modality for reducing the hemorrhage risk of CM. The authors suggest that SRS should be considered for the treatment of patients with CM, high surgical risks, and hemorrhage history, instead of a using a wait-and-see policy.

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Results of three or more Gamma Knife radiosurgery procedures for recurrent trigeminal neuralgia

J Neurosurg 135:1789–1798, 2021

Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) is an established surgical option for the treatment of trigeminal neuralgia (TN), particularly for high-risk surgical candidates and those with recurrent pain. However, outcomes after three or more GKRS treatments have rarely been reported. Herein, the authors reviewed outcomes among patients who had undergone three or more GKRS procedures for recurrent TN.

METHODS The authors conducted a multicenter retrospective analysis of patients who had undergone at least three GKRS treatments for TN between July 1997 and April 2019 at two different institutions. Clinical characteristics, radiosurgical dosimetry and technique, pain outcomes, and complications were reviewed. Pain outcomes were scored on the Barrow Neurological Institute (BNI) scale, including time to pain relief (BNI score ≤ III) and recurrence (BNI score > III).

RESULTS A total of 30 patients were identified, including 16 women and 14 men. Median pain duration prior to the first GKRS treatment was 10 years. Three patients (10%) had multiple sclerosis. Time to pain relief was longer after the third treatment (p = 0.0003), whereas time to pain recurrence was similar across each of the successive treatments (p = 0.842). Complete or partial pain relief was achieved in 93.1% of patients after the third treatment. The maximum pain relief achieved after the third treatment was significantly better among patients with no prior percutaneous procedures (p = 0.0111) and patients with shorter durations of pain before initiation of GKRS therapy (p = 0.0449). New or progressive facial sensory dysfunction occurred in 29% of patients after the third GKRS treatment and was reported as bothersome in 14%. One patient developed facial twitching, while another experienced persistent lacrimation. No statistically significant predictors of adverse effects following the third treatment were found. Over a median of 39 months of follow-up, 77% of patients maintained complete or partial pain relief. Three patients underwent a fourth GKRS treatment, including one who ultimately received five treatments; all of them reported sustained pain relief at the extended follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS The authors describe the largest series to date of patients undergoing three or more GKRS treatments for refractory TN. A third treatment may produce outcomes similar to those of the first two treatments in terms of longterm pain relief, recurrence, and adverse effects.

 

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Stereotactic Radiosurgery for Olfactory Groove Meningiomas: An International, Multicenter Study

Neurosurgery 89:784–791, 2021

Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) is increasingly considered for selected olfactory groove meningiomas (OGMs).

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the safety and efficacy of SRS for OGMs.

METHODS: From 20 institutions participating in the International Radiosurgery Research Foundation, we pooled patients who underwent SRS for histologically confirmed or radiologically suspected WHO grade I OGMs and were followed for 6 mo or more after the SRS.

RESULTS: In total, 278 (median age 57 yr) patients underwent SRS for histologically confirmed (29%) or radiologically suspected (71%) WHO grade I OGMs Median treatment volume was 4.60 cm3 (range: 0.12-27.3 cm3), median prescription dose was 12 Gy, and median dose to the olfactory nerve was 11.20 Gy. During median post-SRS imaging follow- up of 39 mo (range: 6-240 mo), 43% of patients had partial or marginal response, 54% of patients had stable disease, and 3% of patients experienced progression. During median post-SRS clinical follow-up of 51 mo (range: 6-240 mo), 36 (13%) patients experienced clinical and/or radiological adverse radiation events (AREs). Elevated risk of AREs was associated with larger OGM volume (P = .009) and pre-SRS peritumoral T2/fluid-attenuated inversion- recovery signal abnormalities (P < .001). After the SRS, olfaction remained stable, improved, or deteriorated in 90%, 8%, and 2% of patients, respectively. Complete post-SRS anosmia was predicted by partial/complete anosmia before the SRS (odds ratio [OR] = 83.125; 95% CI [24.589-281.01], P < .001) and prior resection of OGM (OR = 3.919; 95% CI [1.713-8.970], P = .001).

CONCLUSION: SRS is associated with durable local control of the majority of OGM patients with acceptable safety profile. SRS allows preservation or improvement of olfactory function in the majority of OGM patients.

 

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Stereotactic radiosurgery for clinoid meningiomas: a multi‐institutional study

Acta Neurochirurgica (2021) 163:2861–2869

Resection of clinoid meningiomas can be associated with significant morbidity. Experience with stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS) for clinoid meningiomas remains limited. We studied the safety and effectiveness of SRS for clinoid meningiomas.

Methods From twelve institutions participating in the International Radiosurgery Research Foundation, we pooled patients treated with SRS for radiologically suspected or histologically confirmed WHO grade I clinoid meningiomas.

Results Two hundred seven patients (median age: 56 years) underwent SRS for clinoid meningiomas. Median treatment volume was 8.02 cm3, and 87% of tumors were immediately adjacent to the optic apparatus. The median tumor prescription dose was 12 Gy, and the median maximal dose to the anterior optic apparatus was 8.5 Gy. During a median post-SRS imaging follow-up of 51.1 months, 7% of patients experienced tumor progression. Greater margin SRS dose (HR = 0.700, p = 0.007) and pre-SRS radiotherapy (HR = 0.004, p < 0.001) were independent predictors of better tumor control. During median visual follow-up of 48 months, visual function declined in 8% of patients. Pre-SRS visual deficit (HR=2.938, p=0.048) and maximal radiation dose to the optic apparatus of ≥ 10 Gy (HR = 11.297, p = 0.02) independently predicted greater risk of post-SRS visual decline. Four patients experienced new post-SRS cranial nerve V neuropathy.

Conclusions SRS allows durable control of clinoid meningiomas and visual preservation in the majority of patients. Greater radiosurgical prescription dose is associated with better tumor control. Radiation dose to the optic apparatus of ≥ 10 Gy and visual impairment before the SRS increase risk of visual deterioration.

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