Skull Base Anatomy Presented in 360° Photogrammetry 3-Dimensional Models

Operative Neurosurgery 30:124–136, 2026

This article presents the creation of seven photorealistic 360° photogrammetric 3D models of the central skull base derived from stepwise dissections of a formalin-fixed, vessel-injected cadaveric head. The workflow—dissection stages, smartphone-based image capture, cloud photogrammetry, refinement in Blender, and VR/MR upload—enables immersive visualization of cranial nerves, ICA/vertebral segments, and regional anatomy.

The models offer progressive exocranial-to-endocranial perspectives for education and preoperative planning, highlighting cavernous sinus, infratemporal and pterygopalatine fossae, petrous bone, and foraminal relationships. Limitations include a single-specimen dataset, color variations from fixation, and resolution constraints in deep cavities; nevertheless, the freely accessible VR models complement traditional dissection and anatomical atlases.

360° Photogrammetric 3D Models: Realistic, photogrammetry-based 3D models of the central skull base were created from cadaveric dissections, offering immersive 360° visualization of complex neuroanatomical structures for enhanced spatial understanding.

Stepwise Dissection and Scanning: Seven progressive anatomical models were generated by systematically dissecting and scanning a formalin-fixed, vessel-injected head specimen, documenting both exocranial and endocranial perspectives.

Key Structures Visualized: The models detail the courses of cranial nerves, major vessels (including all internal carotid artery segments), skull base foramina, infratemporal and pterygopalatine fossae, paranasal sinuses, and deep neck spaces.

Technical Workflow: High-resolution images were captured using a smartphone multi-camera system, processed via cloud-based photogrammetry, refined in 3D software, and made accessible through web, VR, and MR platforms.

Educational Value: The interactive models allow customizable, layered exploration of anatomy, overcoming limitations of traditional 2D images and static atlases, and are freely accessible for educational and preoperative planning purposes.

Limitations: The study used a single specimen, which may not represent anatomical variants; image quality in deep/narrow regions could be further improved with advanced imaging and fixation techniques.

Broad Accessibility: Smartphone-based and cloud photogrammetry methods make high-resolution anatomical modeling more accessible and less resource-intensive, facilitating widespread dissemination.

Conclusions: 360° photorealistic 3D models significantly enhance comprehension of skull base anatomy and are a valuable adjunct to traditional teaching, with potential to improve neurosurgical training and patient outcomes.